Reading: Commentary on “Educational Technologies and the Teaching of Ethics in Science and Engineering”

Servatius, J. D. (2005). Commentary on “Educational Technologies and the Teaching of Ethics in Science and Engineering”. Science & Engineering Ethics, 11(3), 447-449.

She is not arguing with Loui but rather exlaining why ed tech seems an important topic for her. She raises and answers two additional questions:

“why do these technologies enhance learning and how can higher education faculty be supported in the appropriate uses of these technologies?”

Why? two things here: Production and communication. She says that ICT tools are not just for achieving the desired final product but rather a way of doing something. And pupils learn much during the process. The way they communicate via tech tools is close to a real life situation.

How? Good example about older generation: a professor misuses the PowerPoint presentation by filling it with text and lecturing anyway. “Just with the lights off”. :) “/…/ it is important that college administrators recognize this and support faculty members in their journeys to integrate instructional technologies, as Loui says “…not merely to duplicate conventional pedagogies, but to promote intellectual engagement.”

Reading: Code of Technology Ethics for Educators

http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/bweinert/304code.htm

Preamble states that ‘Not only must educators exhibit ethical excellence in how technology is used in their profession, but educators must instill the same standards in their students.’

I. Application of Technology

Standard 1. Educators shall use district technologies to improve the overall quality of the education they provide.
Standard 2. Educators shall follow the national, state, and district guidelines for infusing technology into their respective curriculum.

II. Access

Standard 1: Educators shall provide equal access to technology for all students.
Standard 2: Educators shall work to provide equitable technology resources to all students.
Standard 3: Educators shall use Internet filters and blocking software in the least restrictive manner possible where the students’ rights to access information without censorship are balanced with their safety and compliance with the federal Child Internet Protection Act (CIPA).

III. Guidelines for students

Standard 1: Educators shall provide an Acceptable Use Policy (AUP) to inform students of the appropriate use of district technologies.

IV. Intellectual Property

Standard 1 Educators shall respect the intellectual property of their peers.
Standard 2: Educators have a responsibility to teach their students about intellectual property.

V. Privacy and Confidentiality

Standard 1: Educators shall monitor student computer use in the least restrictive manner possible where the learners’ safety and privacy rights are balanced.
Standard 2: Educators shall provide general notice of various monitoring activities for all users.
Standard 3: Educators shall provide general notice of accessing and/or deleting of any users’ files.
Standard 4: Educators shall protect personal student information and maintain confidentiality of student records.

VI. Security

Standard 1: Educators shall use only those password-protected school accounts that have been assigned to them.
Standard 2: Educators shall respect the confidentiality of files and resources on district networks.
Standard 3: Educators shall have the responsibility of providing secure controls for all technology resources.
Standard 4: Educators shall report any breach in security to the director of technology, network manager, or other designated administrator.

VII. Maintaining Equipment

Standard 1: Teachers shall be responsible for maintaining the technology equipment that they use.

VIII. Community Relations

Standard 1: Educators shall involve the community in establishing a technological vision for their school district.

Rationale: The community surrounding a school district will be directly affected by the infusion of technology into the educational practice. Students will want additional access outside of the school building, which will impact their homes, other public institutions, and some of the local businesses. In addition, the students attending school will also become influential workers within the community both as part-time employees and potential full-time employees. Thus, the input from the community as to the needed technological knowledge and skills will be invaluable.

Reading: Educational Technologies and the Teaching of Ethics in Science and Engineering

Loui, M. C. (2005). Educational Technologies and the Teaching of Ethics in Science and Engineering. Science And Engineering Ethics, 11(3), 435-446.

Main question: ed tech imposes costs (hard/software, licensing, support, training). Whether the benefits justify these costs is an unsettled question. All instructors should assess the effectiveness of their practices.

Term ‘ed tech’ is defined as ‘electronic information technologies that support education’. Including ed tech tools into teaching practice is not a binary yes/no decision. One should examine carefully which functions he needs and at which level. Three levels: limited (e-mail, course website), moderate (interactive, collaborative), extensive (immersive, constructive, simulations, sophisticated animations). The boundaries are not strict and they change over time. ‘What is considered limited today was state-of-the-art twenty years ago’

Five primary functions of ed tech:

– communication
– production of docs, and other artifacts
– distribution of these artifacts
– archiving class sessions
– access to special resources

2015-05-29-121618_1100x795_scrot

Concerns: ed tech is accelerating and it is harder than ever to predict the costs which may bring the cost effectiveness down. Ethical issue: state-of-the-art tech cost serious money and can exclude poor people from the mainstream education.

Reading: The Origins of Educational Technology’s Professional Ethics: Part Two

Yeaman, A. J. (2005). The Origins of Educational Technology’s Professional Ethics: Part Two — Establishing Professional Ethics in Education. Techtrends: Linking Research & Practice To Improve Learning, 49(2), 14-17.

Factors that influence the tech ethics:
– persistant (traditions, laws, institutional rules and professional licensing)
– changing (economic pressure, gov support, hype cycle)
– other (religion, moral) These are more personal things but professional ethics are based on sociology

Refers to Dewey (1930) who emphasizes learners as individuals. Learning always has to have a direct social application.

Different USA edu organisations wrote their ethics codes in the beginning of 20th century. The first national one dates from 1929.

Closer to ed tech as he cites Howard McClusky (1934): the change is inevitable, considering the effect of cars, radio, TV, cheap printing, motion pictures. Education comes to masses and it is just matter of time.

Reading: The Origins of Educational Technology’s Professional Ethics: Part One

Yeaman, A. (2004). The Origins of Educational Technology’s Professional Ethics: Part One. Techtrends: Linking Research & Practice To Improve Learning, 48(6), 13-14.

A reprint of the Ethics of the Teaching Profession (1929), first national code of ethics for the education profession. It was adopted by the NEA (National Education association of USA) in July, 1929 and reprinted from the Journal of the NEA, March, 1935. Current one dates from 1975 and is here www.nea.org/code.html (has moved)

Three parts:

– Relations with Pupils and to the Community
– Relations to the Profession
– Relations with Pupils and to the Community

Interesting: teacher is always “he”. He should not teach only for money, but at the same time he has to demand a decent salary to be able to live an exemplary life.

Reading: Conflicts of Interests and Conflicts of Commitment

Patricia Werhane, Jeffrey Doering

Eelarvamustevaba teadus võiks ühest küljest olla kõigile ideaaliks, aga päris elus on ka teadlastel isiklikud, professionaalsed ja majanduslikud huvid. Selle vastuolu eetilise ületamise võimalustest räägibki antud artikkel.

Huvide konflikt

Spectra näide huvide konfliktist ja ebaeetilisest teadustööst (ilma eetikakomisjoni loata testimine, osaliselt ka inimeste teadmata, tulemuste paremana näitamine, ebapiisava tõendusmaterjali baasil kommertsialiseerimine). Kogu loo ilmsikstulek võttis muuhulgas väga kaua aega.

Huvide konfliktide tekkimise võimalused: teadlane on korraga mitmes rollis, mille ühildamine polegi kerge. Teadlane kui ärimees, ülemus, alluv, lapsevanem, kolleeg, konkurent, inimene.

Kirjeldab kriteeriume, mille alusel rollide konfliktist tulenevaid eetilisi probleeme hinnata: 1) regulatsioonide alusel 2) tagajärgede alusel 3) potentsiaalselt ebaeetilise teo enda kontekstis

Konfliktid kohustuste vahel

Nt. õppejõud on ühtlasi ka teadlane ja käib mööda konverentse, jättes tudengid piisava tähelepanuta. Ei ole võimalik ühildada nii, et mõlemad kohustused oleksid piisavalt täidetud. Erinevus huvide konfliktist – siin puudub tihti majanduslik mõõde ja konflikt tekib professionaalses plaanis. Seda tüüpi konflikte on veelgi raskem vältida.

Näide: Morton Thiokoli tihendite lugu (Challengeri ebaõnnestunud start). Insenerid olid riskist teadlikud, aga nad olid kahe kohustuse vahel – kohustus oma ettevõtte eest ja ametieetikast tulenev kohustus.

Mõlemat tüüpi konfliktidega tegelemiseks on mitmeid regulatsioone. Nt. ajakirjadel on oma reeglistikud, ülikoolidel, teadusorganisatsioonidel, riikidel. On ajalisi piiranguid, et potentsiaalselt konfliktseid olukordi ajaliselt eraldada. On toimingute läbipaistvust suurendavad meetmed, nt avalikkustamine. On huvide deklareerimine, ennetamaks konfliktsete kohustuste tekkimist (nt ei saa granti, kui see hakkab segama muud professionaalset kohustust).

Lõpetuseks – kõnealused konfliktid omavad suuremat rolli, kui pealt paistab. Nende ennetamisele ja lahendamisele kulub ressursse. Kahjuks regulatsioonidest ei pääse, inimene on nõrk. Ja teadlane on ka inimene :)

Reading: Ethics of Science, An Introduction, Chapter 6

Resnik. Ethical Issues in Scientific Publication.

Publish=to make publicly known. What does that mean and how can it be done?

Objektiivsus

Eelmises peatükis kirjeldatud ja potentsiaalselt veaohtlikud tegevused nagu kallutatud andmekogumine, -töötlus, ja interpreteerimine on vaatluse all ka publitseerimisest rääkides. Sarnased põhimõtted kehtivad kõigile publitseerimisprotessi osalistele – autoritele, toimetajatele ja retsensentidele.

Et abistada retsensente, tuleks kirjutada selgelt. Lisaks peab ta loomulikult sisaldama kogu relevantset infot, mis on vajalik kirjutise mõistmiseks. Vajaliku info hulka kuulub teave materjalidest ja andmetest, nendega toimunust, uurimismetoodikast, rahastajatest, uurimiseks vajalikest lubadest ja publikatsiooni staatusest (nt, et pole samaaegselt mujale esitatud). Autori vastutus ei lõppe trükikojas. Kui ilmneb, et tekstis on vigu, tuleb nendega tagantjärele tegeleda.

Toimetajad ja retsensendid peavad oma töös eriti hoolikad olema, sest nemad vastutavad selles süsteemis kvaliteedikontrolli eest. Nende kohus on töö autorit tema puudustest teavitada. Ideaalis peaks hindamine olema vaba isiklikest huvidest. Eelrentsenseerijad on ju sama ala eksperdid, kel on kindlasti teatav koolkondlik või muul alusel põhinev eelistus mõningate teooriate, autorite, ideede, kirjutamisviisi (mitte-emakeeles kirjutatajad!) osas. Sel kombel võib kuritahtlik retsensent anda tekstile negatiivse hinnangu või selle ilmumist muul moel pidurdada. Toimetajatel on selles suhtes veelgi rohkem võimu.

Täielikult avalik retsenseerimine – kõik teavad kõigi nimesid. Kasulik väga väikeste teaduskogukondade puhul, kus nagunii kõik kõiki teavad. Single blind – autor ei tea, kes retsenseeris, aga retsensent teab autori nime. Double blind – kumbki ei tea, kellega tegu. Topeltpimeda vastu on ka kriitikat, sest asjatundlik inimene saab ju viidete jm järgi aru, kes on autor. See aga tähendab, et kurjade kavatsustega retsensent saab mängida, et ta ei tea, kellele ta negatiivse hinnangu andis.

Kriitika peaks lähtuma sisust ja olema ka esitatud nii, et adressaadiks pole mitte autori isik, vaid sisu. Konfidentsiaalsusprobleem – kõik, kes puutuvad käsikirjaga enne avaldamist kokku, on eelistatud seisus võrreldes nendega, kes saavad teksti lugeda pärast avaldamist. See on oluline risk, sest kui autoritel puudub avaldaja suhtes usaldus, kukub praegune publitseerimise süsteem kokku.

Muud probleemid

Publikatsioonide liigid: eelretsenseeritud originaaltöö (kõige mahukam kategooria), eelretsenseeritud varem avaldatud eksperimendi kordused, ülevaateartiklid. Kuigi kehtiv süsteem soosib originaaluurimusi, on ka teised liigid väga olulised. Keegi ei jõua kogu ilmuvat kirjandust läbi lugeda ja on vaja, et kompetentsed inimesed teeksid ilmuvast ülevaateid.

Kohati on teadlastele oluline publitseerida kiiresti. (Meenub J. Watsoni “Kaksikheeliks”, kus kiirustamise põhjus oli konkurents). Näiteks selleks, et saavutada mingi kriitiline publikatsioonide hulk, mis nö annab kaalu. Kiirustamine aga tähendab üldiselt madalakvaliteedilisi publikatsioone. See võib viia ka “väikseima publitseeritava ühikuni” – jagatakse oma andmed tükkideks ja avaldatakse jupikaupa. Ühik on tähtis!

Eetilised, aga madalakvaliteedilise sisuga publikatsioonid ei tee palju kurja, sest vajuvad peagi unustusse. Esile tõusevad paremad. Samas on väga tiheda sõela kasutamine riskantne, kuna häid ideid võib kaduma minna. Seepärast võiks pigem avaldada kui mitte avaldada. Kuid teisest küljest on liigsel avaldamisel ka miinuseid: ajakirjad konkureerivad omavahel ja tahavad avaldada häid asju, keskmine relevantsus läheb alla, kui mass prahi arvel suureneb. Veebis avaldamine on odav ja see võib tähendada kehvema materjali pealekasvu.

Viitamine, kaasautorid

Viisakas on ära märkida, kelle ideid kasutatakse. Selleks saab kasutada kaasautoriks lisamist, viitamist, äramärkimist (acknowledgements). Kõige hullem eksimus siin valdkonnas on plagiarism. Kohati tehakse vigu, kuna ei mäletata, kust mingi teadmine tuli. Osa plagiaate on tahtmatud. Juhtub ka seda, et sama idee süttib mitmes peas.

Autor on see, kes annab töösse märkimisväärse panuse ja vastutab selle eest. Juhtub, et autoriks pannakse ka inimese teadmata – et saada usaldusväärsust juurde, et “kinkida” autorlus, et märkida ära kellegi tahtmatu panus töösse… Laboratooriumi juhatajad, professorid, õppejõud, juhendajad jne. Osadel töödel on sadu autoreid, neist suurem osa “au-autorid”.

Matthew-efekt: tuntud teadlastele viidatakse rohkem kui nende töö seda väärt on.

Intellektuaalomand

Ülevaade USA IP regulatsioonidest. IP formaalsed tüübid: copyright, patent, trademark, trade secrets. Autori õigused on piiratud kontekstiga. Teiste osapoolte juurdepääs IP-le ei ole võrreldav nö tavalise varaga, sest kõik võivad IP-d kasutada, küsimus on vaid, kuidas. Patent kaitseb autori ainuõigust IP-d kommertsialiseerida. Seegi õigus on ajaliselt piiratud (tihti 20 aastat). Patenditaotluses sisalduva kirjelduse detailsuse aste peab olema piisav, et sama ala ekspert suudaks selle kirjelduse järgi IP subjekti valmistada (Täiesti ebareaalne! Ma pole ühtki oma valdkonna, st muusikatarkvara patenti näinud, mille järgi saaks midagi korrata). Ärisaladuse võib teine ettevõte samuti avastada. Sel juhul esmaavastaja eelis kaob.

Entitlement approach vs desert approach. Olemasolevad IP regulatsioonid järgivad “utilitarian approach” põhimõtet – nad kaitsevad pigem tulemust kui protsessi (panust ja pingutust). Arutlus teemal, mis üldse võib patendi subjektiks olla – kas geenid näiteks võiksid olla? Arvutiprogrammid, valemid, organismid, rohud jne.?

Teadus, meedia ja avalikkus

Teadus ja meedia tegelevad mõlemad info kogumisega, hindavad täpsust ja objektiivsust. Vähemasti uudismeedia kuulub sellesse seltskonda. Teadus soovib samuti meedia kaudu avalikkust teavitada. Näide: uudis mõnest kosmoseavastusest “ei põle”, aga on PR tööriistana toimiv. Probleem: kas pressikal välja öeldud avastus, mille publitseerib ajakirjandus, vastab veel “värskuse” kriteeriumile teadusajakirja mõistes? Teaduse ja meedia suhet on targem reguleerida kui vältida. Selgitamine töötab paremini, kui et lasta inimestel ise “arvata”. Informeeritus on oluline arvamuse kujundaja. Inimest tuleb harida. Paternalism – info moonutamise kolm erinevate astet.

 

 

 

 

Reading: Behavioral and Social Science Research

Felice J. Levine and Paula R. Skedsvold, “Behavioral and Social Science Research“, in The Oxford Textbook of Clinical Research Ethics, ed. by Ezekiel J. Emanuel, a. o. Oxford UP, 2008. ch. 32.

Codes for behavioral and social sciences: Belmont report, DHHS’s Policy for Protection of Human Research Subjects.

Examples: anthropology, economics, political science, psychology, sociology, linguistics, educational research, geography, demography, sociolegal studies etc.

Ethics became an explicit topic in social sciences during the 1960-70s. APA was first professional organization to make an ethics code.

Ethical challenges. Experimental methods. Is it ethical to cause memory overload, stress etc to experiment with cognitive abilities?

Observational methods. How invasive can the researcher get? Different levels of privacy: a party, a public sports event. On the other hand, is it ethical to observe youngsters drinking or bullying?

Survey methods. Main factors are questionnaire content, mode of administration, recruitment strategies, mechanisms to increase participation. Other issues: privacy, data storage.

Interview methods. Mostly same as survey problems. In addition: degree of structure in the interview, sensitive responses, disclosure following group interviews, recruitment through the use of interviews.

Etnographic methods. Includes many of the described tools – interviews, observations, document or audiovisual analysis. Problems – observation can lead to attachment to the subjects (e.g. observing domestic violence), observation can often take a long time, involves building trust, differentiating casual talk and research.

Analysis of public data files. Biggest problem is the creation of those files which has to involve de-identification of the data.

Cross-cutting issues.

Deception – participants have to understand what they are asked. And what for.

Incentives – it’s OK to compensate participants’ effort but not OK to buy them in.

New stuff

Internet research – data storage, transmission, handling, confidentiality, privacy, boundary between public and private.

Geospatial measurements and other tracking methods. Personal identification problems.

Third party – talking about your friend’s, parents’ or else’s health, details etc. How to handle this kind of information?

Reading: The Ethics of Science

Resnik. Chapters 4, 5

Chapter 4: Standards of Ethical Conduct in Science

Ethical standards in science have two conceptual foundations, morality (do not violate common moral standards) and science (should promote advancement of scientific goals).

Common misinterpretations of data: trimming (leave out the data that does not support the theory), cooking (designing biased tests and experiments), fudging (try to make the data look better than it is).

– Honesty
– Carefulness
– Openness
– Freedom
– Credit
– Education
– Social Responsibility
– Legality
– Opportunity
– Mutual Respect
– Efficiency
– Respect for Subjects

Chapter 5, Objectivity in Research

Focus on honesty, carefulness, and openness.

– Honesty in research
– Misconduct in Science
– Error and self-deception
– Bias in Research
– Conflicts of Interests
– Openness
– Data management

 

Reading: Moral Progress and Ethical Universals

Ruth Macklin. Against relativism, Chapter 10.

“Cultural relativism was introduced (in part) to combat the racist, hierarchical Eurocentric ideas of progress.”

“The concept of moral progress as I will argue here, is a social concept: It applies only to events, institutions and social practices in countries, cultures, societies, eras, or periods in history, not to individual persons or personal moral behavior.”

Comparing moral progress of cultures:

– the principle of humaneness (how much do people suffer?)
– the principle of humanity (does the culture respect equal autonomy of every human?)

Moral progress is: “/…/ changes in laws in the direction of greater humaneness and respect for humanity in every person.”

“I see no good reason why religious mandates and practices should be immune from ethical judgements any more than cultural practices or traditions.”

2. The Individual Versus the “Common Good”: “particular rights properly termed human rights may be overridden only in extreme and extenuating circumstances.”

3. Cross-Cultural Elthical Judgments

4. What Turns Out To Be Relative